rgitation. Transcatheter pulmonary valve implantation (TPVI), which is a common intervention in adult patients with congenital heart disease patients today, has been introduced as a much less invasive approach, allowing earlier restoration of pulmonary valve function before the onset of irreversible remodeling and dysfunction, and potentially fewer lifetime surgical interventions.The teeth are multifunctional appendages that essential in basic human functions, like eating and speech. Teeth are composed of multiple unique tissues with varying density and hardness that allows them to tolerate the significant forces and wear of mastication. They are attached to the maxilla (upper jaw) and the mandible (lower jaw) of the mouth. Humans have four different types of teeth that each have a specific function, which is classified by structure and location. Also, humans have two generations of teeth throughout a lifetime 20 primary teeth and 32 permanent teeth.Alveoli represent the major sites of gas exchange. Their presence increases the surface area of the lung to maximize gas exchange, much like villi and microvilli increase the absorptive surface area of the digestive tract. For alveoli to carry out their function efficiently, they must be both a dynamic and stable system. The lung parenchyma must be able to expand and recoil during inspiration and expiration, and the air-blood barrier must be thin to allow for gas exchange to occur. Also, cells of the alveoli must be healthy to form a barrier to keep the lungs dry and be able to regenerate if they are damaged.Muscarinic receptor antagonists (MRAs) are a group of agents that function by competitively blocking the cholinergic response manifested by acetylcholine (ACh) binding muscarinic receptors on exocrine glandular cells, cardiac muscle cells, and smooth muscle cells. Therefore, MRAs are heavily involved with the parasympathetic nervous system and act on different types of muscarinic receptors resulting in a wide array of clinical indications.Polymyxins comprise a class of antibiotics targeting gram-negative bacterial infections. Polymyxin B and Polymyxin E (colistin) are the two drugs within this antibiotic class used primarily in clinical practice. They are FDA approved for serious infections with multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacteria, especially those caused by Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii. Polymyxins are often the only effective antibiotic agent against multidrug-resistant organisms, particularly carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae. They have become the last line of treatment for infections that are resistant to other antibiotics. They are useful in treating infections of the urinary tract, meninges, and bloodstream by susceptible strains of pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacteriaceae, and Acinetobacter baumannii.Dopaminergic agonists have been used for the treatment of Parkinsonism. They can categorize into ergot derived and non-ergot derived. The focus of this review is pramipexole; a non-ergot derived dopaminergic agonist used broadly in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease (PD) and restless leg syndrome (RLS). The FDA approved pramipexole for treatment of PD in 1997 as monotherapy or add-on drug to other first-line agents. Younger patients are more prone to the motor fluctuations seen in patients treated with levodopa-carbidopa, the most effective agent in treating PD. Hence, treatment with pramipexole should initiate as monotherapy in young patients with PD. On the other hand, elderly patients are more susceptible to the adverse effects of pramipexole-it should only be used when there are motor fluctuations with levodopa-carbidopa therapy. Using pramipexole can permit levodopa-carbidopa dose reduction, thus help overcome the “off” periods seen.Epinastine belongs to the class of second-generation antihistamines and is also a mast cell stabilizer. It also shows anti leukotriene, anti-PAF, and anti-bradykinin activities, which provide additional anti-allergic activities. Antihistamines and mast cell stabilizers have been used to manage various allergic conditions for many years.Tubulointerstitial nephritis (TIN) is a group of immune-mediated inflammatory disease that involves the interstitium and tubules. Inflammation of the kidney consists of the collection of inflammatory cells, fluid, and extracellular matrix surrounding the interstitium along with the infiltration of tubular cells by inflammatory cells that define both tubules and interstitium pathology. It is one of the most important and major causes of acute kidney injury that subsequently drives to renal failure. TIN can be classified into acute and chronic on the basis of underlying etiology, duration, or histology. Renal impairment with acute TIN is reversible provided that early and appropriate interventions are made but, chronic TIN may be irreversible in severe cases. Drug-induced nephritis is widely described and is the leading cause of TIN. Delay in diagnosis due to nonspecific signs and symptoms is frequently seen; thus, many attempts have been made for effective diagnosis and exclude the other differentials carefully through efficient clinical experts’ opinions and assessment and diagnostic tests.Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is an important enzyme of the anaerobic metabolic pathway. It belongs to the class of oxidoreductases, with an enzyme commission number EC 1.1.1.27. The function of the enzyme is to catalyze the reversible conversion of lactate to pyruvate with the reduction of NAD+ to NADH and vice versa. GDC-0879 mouse The enzyme is present in a variety of organisms, that include plants and animals. It is ubiquitously present in all tissues and serves as an important checkpoint of gluconeogenesis and DNA metabolism. A species-wide analysis of LDH demonstrates its well-preserved structure with only a few changes in the amino acid sequence across species. The structural similarity with slight amino acid changes provides a logical platform for designing functional molecules to modulate the catalytic potential and expression of the enzyme. In this article, we will focus our attention on the biochemical function, testing methods, and clinical relevance of the LDH enzyme.